The gulf of execution

The gulf of execution describes the gap between user’s goal for action and the way to execute the goal. Usability’s objective is to eliminate these extra steps that cause destruction and make the users to shift their attention. The whole course of interacting in the process of HCI falls into seven categories:
• setting up the goal
• outlining the purpose
• identify the action series
• completing the action
• perceiving the system state
• interpreting the system state
• evaluation the system state with respect to the goals and intentions

The interaction between the system and the user will be successful if the system allows the execution of the steps. Therefore, the system seeks the reduction of the gulf. According to Dix (1998), “The gulf of evaluation is the distance between the physical presentation of the system state and the expectation of the user” (p.106). The gulf of evaluation is small if the user can easily assess the presentation according to his goals.

Conceptual Model
The Conceptual Model refers to mental models of the way an object operates. Good designs usually provide feedback to verify the user’s mental model of operation. A good conceptual model is built based on the successful use of constraints, mapping and affordances. Throughout users’ life they recognize and learn the fact that different materials have different natural affordances. Once users start the interaction with the system they build the conceptual model based on physical structure, documentation and graphics. According to Nielsen (1993), “It is often good to relate the specific information given in the instructions to a conceptual model of the system, for example through the use of a diagram” (p.152). Good designer can use metaphors, graphics, icons and tutorials that support the same conceptual model and underlying the relevant aspects of the system. In HCI a good conceptual model is enabling the user to predict and understand the consequences of their actions.

Human characteristics that can cause errors in HCI interactions
1. Memory
Short and long term memory can cause many errors in HCI interactions. If system requires from users to memorize input formats, this should be presented and described to users in the system. Users can easily recognize something if it is presented to them, rather asking them to recall the same information. Therefore, computers should always provide examples of the input information such as date formats, or the units of measurement. Designer should always integrate into the system the elements that will minimize users’ memory load.

2. Vision
Vision is a primary source of information. Ability to read and distinguish falls off inversely as the distance from our point of focus. People have different limitations in vision. They can be nearsighted, farsighted; have limited vision at night, color deficiencies and color blindness. All these limitations can cause different errors in HCI interactions. Designer should apply in their design the gestalt theory principles of closure and similarity of the elements. In the design similar object, elements should be grouped together. For instance, this applies to structuring navigation of the website: buttons should be grouped together, yet still separated by a design to mark each button. To enhance the usability of the system, the colors of the interface should be limited to no more than 5 to 7 colors. Designers should also avoid certain combinations of colors (too bright, too much contrast, too flashy) to enhance the visibility of information and clarity.

3. Cognitive Processing (Feedback & Response time)
Response time applies to the time it takes the brain to receive the stimulus and respond, and the actual time the movement takes. Because the reaction times are very difficult to predict some additional factors are influential in the time it takes to respond.
Users should always be informed by the system about their performance. System feedback is usually the best option to indicate this. If the system is expecting any delays the user should be alerted. For instance, the user is asked to fill out an online form that is designed on 10 pages. As the user enters the information he should see his progress and how many pages he has left to accomplish the task. This information can be also presented in the estimated remaining time showing percentages, and the information indicating the amount of the remaining pages.


References
Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G. & Beale, R. (1998). Human- Computer Interaction. Prentice Hall Europe.
Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability Engineering. Morgan Kaufmann.

Using Standards, Guidelines and Tools.

State transition networks (STNs) are used for dialog descriptions. The STNs can be presented in several ways and it is up to a developer to understand and design a consistent, predictable and forgiving interface. Depending on user preferences, understanding and knowledge the designer should make a choice to use the most desired interface to ensure smooth HCI.

Menus
The types of menus are a pull-down menu, cascaded menu, and pop-up menu. Menus are widely used in common interfaces in PC, desktop workstations, Microsoft Windows, MacOs and various Windows0- based systems for Unix. They are usually attached to the menu bar near the top of a window. A menu bar usually contains a single word, which leads to pull-down menus.
Advantages:
• Save the screen space to display more functions and content
• Are visible and easy to access
• Allow the cursor to wrap at the top and bottom of a menu
• Provide guiding principle on available and unavailable-state emphasis on action and settings choices that can be or cannot be selected in the current context
• Hierarchical elements create submenus that are displayed in logical order to perform different tasks
• Allow the designer to add many items in the submenu and group them in logical clusters
• Provide additional information such as keyboard shortcuts
Disadvantages
• Menus work differently in MacOs and Microsoft Windows environments
• Menus can become long and disorganized by creating cascading submenus
• Once the submenus are extended, they become difficult to navigate and the user can easily be confused and lost in performing any desired task
• Require some expertise with computers and windows display
• Menus are used with a pointing device such as mouse and can become difficult to use for people with lack of movable abilities and precise coordination (elderly people, neurological infirmity such as Multiple Sclerosis, etc.)

Controls
Controls are incorporated into a design as a visual- interface to allow a user to select choices and to type information. Controls can incorporate a few different elements: Check boxes, Radio buttons, Drop-down lists, and List boxes. List boxes and Drop- down lists are allowing a user to select an option from the existing values and they not allow the user to input their own information. Each control or field of controls has to be identified by the title or the descriptive name to indicate the control’s function. Controls should be consistent in look-and-feel and it is best practice to use the ones that are provided by the operating environment.
Advantages
• Allow users to make a few selections within one visual interface and are easy to navigate
• Controls provide the scope of information within one visual interface which helps users to control their preferences at once
• The size of Controls windows can be adjusted as needed
• Users can easily recover their actions if any mistakes were done (high recoverability) by opening the controls and inspecting their selections
• Allow users to cancel their selection by pressing the CANCEL Push Button
• Controls display Help button that allows easy access to more information
Disadvantages
• Controls take a large amount of the screen space
• Can require some level of expertise from the user if the labels of control’s function are not clearly identified or placed
• Check boxes and Radio boxes can be confusing if the user is not familiar with their performances
• Controls require the user to confirm their selection by clicking on the OK

Push Button
Designer should be familiar with various components that would allow users to perform different tasks. By assessing advantages and disadvantages of them, HCI can become consistent, predictable and forgiving. Components should be consistent, simple, provide needed support and responsive.


References
Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G. & Beale, R. (1998). Human- Computer Interaction. Prentice Hall Europe.
ISII GUI Style Guide (1999). Retrieved October 22, 2008 from, http://www.isii.com/style_guide/style_guide.html

Effective Document Design

Document design for the Web requires completely different approach than the traditional approach to print medium. Web sites are the organized collection of individual web pages and associated files that create coherent and logical union. A Web site is built to serve a distinguished purpose. It carries a message, markets and sells products, informs or promotes. Web sites are often very complex and serve multiple audience and multiple purposes. As a result, the audience is typically very broad and has diverse expectations. Having this in mind, the process of a web site design is complex and multilayered.

One of the most important aspects in effective document design for web sites is consideration of the audience. A designer should always assess the demographics of the audience, their level of expertise in the subject, and their speed of reading. If the website aims to be reached globally, which often is the case, it should be designed for easy translation. Studies show that users do not read on the web. According to Jakob Nielsen (n.d.) research, 79 percent of users quickly scan web pages, and only 16 percent users read word- by- word. To increase the process of acquiring information and communicating effectively through the Web, it is helpful to write short paragraphs and include only one idea per paragraph. Hyperlinks in a format of highlighted keywords serve as an eye catching element. The document design should include meaningful headings and subheadings to highlight essential information. To enhance the visibility of the content, it is common to use bulleted lists and tables.

An effective document design requires different style of writing. The style is called the inverted pyramid style where the piece of writing starts with the conclusion and then continues to more explanatory and supportive information (Nielsen, n.d.). The most important information is always on the top, followed by additional sequence of text blocks. Web writers split information into smaller chunks of coherent information that can be scanned faster and are visible without a need to scroll the page. This approach helps to establish the level of importance on the page. The least important content should always be placed toward the bottom of the page.

In effective document design on the Web, the importance goes to credibility. Users are more likely to read on the Web if the information is dated and provides the name of the author. Additional information should be included under “About” section, or in the footer. Credibility can be increased by including high quality graphics, good writing and proper hypertext linking (Nielsen, n.d.). All important content should be placed consistently on the top. In particular navigation should be visible without scrolling. Users tend to look for information first at the top center, and then look left and right. Documents that provide multiple data should be structured for easy comparison. This can be achieved by using tables, heading, and alternating colors.

The display density on the web pages should be controlled by the use of text, graphics, and white space. Some usability studies show that it takes longer for users to locate target in a crowded area versus a sparse area. Users are looking for consistent layout of checkboxes, text blocks, radio buttons, columns and rows. These should be used consistently across the web site to increase visibility and readability. Effective document design for Web can be accomplished by use of a fluid layout that automatically adjusts page size to monitor resolution settings. When the layout of the pages is flexible it adjusts to fit the screen space, and increase user performance.

Designing an effective document for Web sites requires a cooperative work and knowledge of graphic designer, Web programmer and content manager. To ensure consistent, reliable and easy to maintain web pages, elements such as color, type face, positioning of block text, graphics, and navigation should be coded in the Cascading Style Sheet (CSS).

References
Gurak, L.J. & Hocks, M.E. (2009). The Technical Communication Handbook. Longman.
Nielsen, J. (N.d.). Useit.com: Jakob Nielsen on Usability and Web Design (n.d.). Retrieved October 14 2009, from http://www.useit.com/

Task Analysis Comparison Paper

According to Dix (1998), “Task analysis is the process of analyzing the way people perform their jobs: the things they do, the things they act on and the things they need to know” (p.260). There are three different approaches to a task analysis:
• Task decomposition
• Knowledge- Based techniques
• Entity- relation-based analysis

All three approaches have some common characteristics; however, they emphasize slightly different areas. Task analysis serves many purposes. It helps to research on requirements for new systems and procedures, and it helps to produce technical documentation for training materials.

Task Decomposition
Task decomposition is focusing on the technique where a task is split into subtasks and the order they are being executed. In task decomposition the most typical approach is to use hierarchical task analysis where the tasks and subtasks are written in the order they are performed. The tasks are given the numbers in which they should be executed. In addition to the order, the plan is also stating which tasks should be performed and which one can could be omitted. The task hierarchy can be shown diagrammatically or textually. When designing the task hierarchy, subtasks may need to be expended and might require additional information or a stopping point.


Knowledge- based analysis
Knowledge- based task analysis refers to creating task analysis by listing the names, object and actions and then constructing a list of related words. This approach is based on taxonomies of the required tasks. When building such hierarchy it is good to start with listing all related words, and later removing items that are unnecessary. Often the taxonomy already exists, therefore, when using this approach, we may ask the user to sort and group related objects. Task analysis for knowledge description (TAKD) uses task descriptive hierarchy, which is a special kind of taxonomy. In the simple taxonomy the branches are either/ or branches. Producing a simple taxonomy for action and objects is very similar. There is always a relationship between taxonomy of actions and the hierarchical task analysis descriptions of tasks.


Entity- relation-based analysis
Entity- relation-based techniques are usually connected with database design and object-oriented programming. This model is based on:
• Entities – we seek information about them
• Attributes- the data that we collect about entities
• Relationships- information needed to build the structure

The entities used in this approach are the ones that will be represented in the consequential computer system. The emphasis in this approach is put on the relationship between actions and objects; therefore it can be called object-based methodology. The relationship between objects, actions and events falls into a few categories:
• Object-object
• Action-object
• Action-event

The idea is to describe the relationship between objects in human and computer tasks. To develop the entity- relation-based diagram we need to:
1. Identify entities
2. Identify relationships
3. Add attributes to the relations
In the entity- relation-based analysis it is often common to list more items, and drop any unneeded later.

References
Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G. & Beale, R. (1998). Human- Computer Interaction. Prentice Hall Europe.

Design Issues Related to Various User-Interface Components

Research shows that some of the most significant factors in assessing web usability are navigation, download speed, personalization, ease of use, and accessibility. Pearson, J.M., Pearson, A, and Green (2007) conducted a usability study to determine the relative importance of the five web usability criteria.

With the increased development of the World Wide Web, the meaning of HCI and usability has become increasingly important. Researchers suggest that a significant amount of money should be spent on usability testing to guarantee increased sales for e-commerce sites. According to them, websites should be simple enough so the goal-driven customer will accomplish his task painlessly and in minimum time. They also suggest that the website should meet the needs of the customer rather than being attractive and entertaining.

According to Pearson, J.M., Pearson, A. and Green (2007), “The user’s impression of the web site’s usability impacts the user’s impression of the products available at the site” (p.2). In their study Green and Pearson found that elements such as navigation, customization and personalization, download speed, accessibility, and ease of use presented a valid and strong measure of web usability. Users did not consider the content to provide significant value, but rather be part of the overall satisfaction and usefulness.

Navigation of the website is one of the most important elements that ensure satisfaction of the customers. Novice users tend to make twice as many errors and experience cognitive overload when using badly design navigation. An important factor in customer contentment is playing personalization and customization (Pearson, 2007). It can increase customer likelihood of returning to the e-commerce website; however the personalization should not be overdone. Customers only expect high personalization if they have a long time relationship with the web site. In the assessment of customer satisfaction from user-interface design, download speed can enhance their fulfillment. Users can feel anxiety if they need to wait for more than a few seconds for a page to download. With the increase growth in web technology, accessibility can be easily overlooked and underestimated. To ensure positive HCI, websites should always be tested in text-only browsers and be designed with deep understanding of limitations in HCI.

Pearson et al. conducting their research posed a question (2007), “Does gender impact the relative importance of navigation, customization and personalization, download speed, accessibility, and ease of use in assessing Web site usability? (p.5). To answer this question a usability study has been conducted that included a questionnaire, interview and scenario. The results showed that there is a significant difference in male and female approach to navigation and ease of use. For female users these criteria were playing a greater role than for male. According to Pearson et al. (2007), “… the results of this study indicated that females have a stronger preference for web sites that are easy to use and have clear navigation capabilities; this suggests that organizations that have women-centric web sites should emphasize these features in the design of their web site. Organizations have to understand who targeted customers are before moving into the e-commerce arena” (p.9).

Study conducted by Liang, Lai, and Ku (2006-2007) indicated the relationship between personalized content and user satisfaction. According to Liang et al. (2006-2007), “Personalized services can reduce information overload and, hence, increase user satisfaction, but their effects may be moderated by the motivation for information access” (p.45). General web sites whose customers come for quick scanning should not be targeted by the content recommendations. Those should be used in the knowledge management systems where users often look for a specific topic.


References
Liang, T.P., Lai, H.J. and Ku, Y.C. (2006-2007). Personalization content recommendation and user satisfaction: theoretical synthesis and empirical findings. Journal of Management
Information Systems. 23(3), 45-70. Retrieved December 6, 2008 from Business Source Complete database.
Parmanto, B. & Zeng, Q. (2005). Metric for web accessibility evaluations. Journal of Society for Information Science and Technology. 56(13), 1394-404.
Pearson, J.M., Pearson, A,, & Green, D. (2007). Determining the importance of key criteria in web usability. Management Research News. 30(11), 816-828. Retrieved December 6, 2008 from Business Source Complete database.